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標題: 道德究竟是甚麼？ [打印本頁]

作者: 古月語 時間: 2013-12-6 09:20 標題: 道德究竟是甚麼？

大家應該見到，古月語在這塊平臺上一直在問一個這樣的問題：『我們在應對他人的觀點的時候，或者在對真實世界的訊息的時候，我們的腦裡有沒有一個事先的、下意識的框框，是這樣的框框限定了我們應該如何去應對他人的觀點或應對真實世界的訊息？』

古月語在自己的《哲學——智慧的原理》一書裡有一章《哲學的原義》，古月語問了這樣的一個問題：『歷代先哲到底在說甚麼？他們想說甚麼？』

( 所有綠色英文字的資料均來自《自由的百科全書》，中文是網絡翻譯器的譯文)
『倫理學（Ethics）也稱為道德哲學或道德學，其西方歷史十分悠久，其源頭可以在最古老的史詩與神話中考究。倫理學是對人類道德生活進行系統思考和研究的學科。它試圖從理論層面建構一種指導行為的法則體系，即「我們應該怎樣處理此類處境」，「我們為甚麼又依據甚麼這樣處理」，並且對其進行嚴格的評判。

道德規範，也稱為道德哲學，是哲學的涉及到系統化、捍衛和推薦的正確和錯誤行為，概念哲學的一個分支往往解決糾紛的道德多樣性。一詞來自希臘字ethos，這意味著"品質"。道德是在哲學領域的價值論美學的補充。在哲學、倫理學研究中人和人應如何採取行動的道德行為。倫理可分為四個主要領域的研究：Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending and recommending concepts of right and wrong conduct, often addressing disputes of moral diversity.The term comes from the Greek word ethos, which means "character". Ethics is a complement to Aesthetics in the philosophy field of Axiology. In philosophy, ethics studies the moral behavior in humans and how one should act. Ethics may be divided into four major areas of study:

• 元倫理學，有關的理論意義和參考的道德命題和如何可能確定它們的真相的值（如果有）；Meta-ethics,about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions and how their truth values (if any) may be determined;

• 規範倫理學；關於確定道德行動過程的實用方法Normative ethics,about the practical means of determining a moral course of action;

• 應用倫理學，有關道德如何結局可以實現在特定情況下；Applied ethics,about how moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations;

• 描述性的道德規範，也稱為比較道德，是對有關道德；人們的信仰的研究Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics, is the study of people's beliefs about morality;
倫理試圖解決的問題處理人類道德 — —善與惡、對與錯、美德和邪惡、司法和犯罪等概念.Ethics seeks to resolve questions dealing with human morality—concepts such as good and evil, right and wrong, virtue and vice, justice and crime.

來自美國批判性思考教學中心的Tomas Paul和Linda Elder認為「大部分人把倫理和社會慣例、宗教信仰和法律等混為一談」，而沒有把倫理視為一套獨立的概念。Paul和Elder把倫理定義為「指導我們去判斷甚麼行為對具有感情的生物是有益或是有害的一套概念和原則。」劍橋哲學辭典指出倫理的英語用詞ethics「普遍地和morality（即『道德』的英語用詞）交替使用...有時候亦會被用以狹義地指出某種傳統、群體或個人所抱有的道德原則。」對自願性人類行爲所設的道德規範或規則。 According to Richard Paul and Linda Elder of the Foundation for Critical Thinking, "most people confuse ethics with behaving in accordance with social conventions, religious beliefs and the law", and don't treat ethics as a stand-alone concept. Paul and Elder define ethics as "a set of concepts and principles that guide us in determining what behavior helps or harms sentient creatures".The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy states that the word ethics is "commonly used interchangeably with 'morality' ... and sometimes it is used more narrowly to mean the moral principles of a particular tradition, group or individual."

蘇格拉底只是這麼說了幾句：

以下是所謂蘇格拉底悖論：『蘇格拉底悖論許多傳統上歸因於歷史蘇格拉底的信仰已經被認為是"自相矛盾"，因為它們看起來與常識相衝突。

The following are among the so-called Socratic Paradoxes:

• 沒有人想要邪惡。 No one desires evil.

• 沒有人犯錯或自願或知情的情況下犯錯。No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly.

• 美德 — — 所有美德 — — 就是知識。Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge.

• 美德對幸福是足夠的。Virtue is sufficient for happiness.

這一蘇格拉底悖論短語也可以指自引用的悖論，源於蘇格拉底短語，"我知道沒有什麼高尚和良好"。 The phrase Socratic paradox can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates' phrase, 「I know that I know nothing noble and good」』通過寫照在柏拉圖的對話，蘇格拉底已成為在道德操守領域作出他的的貢獻而聞名。Through his portrayal in Plato's dialogues, Socrates has become renowned for his contribution to the field of ethics.

道德的一般含義：合理、優化 (被認為是最佳的解決方案的給定選項) 和常識的基礎上帶來了作出適當決定。如果有必要，如果它不發生作為故意惡意的結果，這並不排除毀滅的可能性。如果，例如，物理衝突的威脅並且有沒有其他的解決方案，它是損傷的導致，為了自衛而必要的程度上可以接受。因此倫理不提供像道德規則，但它可以被用於作為一種手段確定道德價值觀 (態度或行為對社會的價值，例如倫理或道德優先)。 The general meaning of ethics: rational, optimal (regarded as the best solution of the given options) and appropriate decision brought on the basis of common sense. This does not exclude the possibility of destruction if it is necessary and if it does not take place as the result of intentional malice. If, for example, there is the threat of physical conflict and one has no other solution, it is acceptable to cause the necessary extent of injury, out of self-defence. Thus ethics does not provide rules like morals but it can be used as a means to determine moral values (attitudes or behaviours giving priority to social values, e.g. ethics or morals).

道德從來是智者對個人行為的一種期望，期望不能說起不到一點社會影響，但實際上，無法左右個人的行為。道德從一開始出現在人腦的世界裡，就認定是所有人對善、對、錯的共同判斷，尤其是在中華民族的意識裡。在西方民族卻從來不是，它純粹是智者對人的行為的一種期望，而不是所有人必須有的共識。道理其實非常簡單：甚麼是善，甚麼是對，甚麼是錯，具體到一件事可能就各走極端無法達成共識。所以，蘇格拉底、亞里斯多德等西方的智者沒有像中華民族那樣做出具體的規範，這也是為甚麼倫理學會成為一門研究課題。看西方的的倫理學，我們就知道道德是甚麼一回事：希臘羅馬倫理學、中世紀基督教倫理學、文藝復興倫理學、近代倫理學，後近代倫理學、現代倫理學。看看中華民族，來來去去就是那麼一個孔夫子之乎者也。難怪馮友蘭認為，無論是儒家還是道家，都認為他們的說教是終極真理，古月語相信，華先生也是這樣認為的，幾乎沒有一篇華先生的帖子沒有被引用儒家的說教。老實說，古月語真的質疑兩千年前的說教竟然到今天都還被一些華人奉為圭臬，這不是終極真理又是甚麼？古月語從來不相信有真理這麼一回事，更不相信有終極真理。古月語認為這些都是人腦裡的世界，而人腦裡的世界是甚麼一回事呢？

馮友蘭在他的《中國哲學簡史》裡也說對了一件事：為甚麼這些諸子百家的語言含糊不清，故弄玄虛？目的就是掩飾一些無知。古月語相信正是這一點，導致了中華民族的文化沒有向科學進化，他們不喜歡用精確、清晰的語言去表達他們對真實世界的看法。

道德，從來是人類的神話，只有極高智慧的哲人才能做到，所以道德和宗教是人類的兩大神話。所以，古月語說，道德（說教）常常彌補不了智慧的欠失。

這篇關於「道德」的帖子，僅僅是初稿，古月語會進一步充實、詳盡論述、至於「中庸之道」，古月語將以今天自己的哲學原理來剖析這個兩千年前的，被無數華人奉為圭臬的說教。

下面引用的這些先哲的話，他們給我們的並不是教條，而是叫我們如何運用智慧去剖析一切道德的說教。

蘇格拉底(西元前 469年 — 399 年) 是第一的希臘哲學家之一鼓勵學者和普通公民，他們的注意力從外面的世界轉向人類狀況。在此視圖中，對人類生活有直接關係的知識放最高，其他所有知識是其次。自知之明被認為成功所必要和理解我本質上良好。自我意識的人將在向他的巔峰，他能力範圍內完全行事，而是無知的人將掙扎並遇到困難。對蘇格拉底，一個人在每個事情上必須清醒（和它的來龍去脈）的意識到有關他的存在，如果他想達到的自知之明。他假定人們會自然地做甚麼是好的如果他們知道什麼是正確。邪惡或者不良行為是無知的結果。如果罪犯是真正意識到他的行動的智力和精神後果，他不會犯下或甚至考慮犯下這些行動。任何人士如知道什麼是真正對自動會做它，按照蘇格拉底。雖然他將知識與美德關聯，他同樣將美德視同喜悅。真正聰明的人會知道什麼是對、做什麼是好的，因此，快樂。 Socrates (469 BC – 399 BC) was one of the first Greek philosophers to encourage both scholars and the common citizen to turn their attention from the outside world to the condition of humankind. In this view, knowledge having a bearing on human life was placed highest, all other knowledge being secondary. Self-knowledge was considered necessary for success and inherently an essential good. A self-aware person will act completely within his capabilities to his pinnacle, while an ignorant person will flounder and encounter difficulty. To Socrates, a person must become aware of every fact (and its context) relevant to his existence, if he wishes to attain self-knowledge. He posited that people will naturally do what is good, if they know what is right. Evil or bad actions are the result of ignorance. If a criminal was truly aware of the intellectual and spiritual consequences of his actions, he would neither commit nor even consider committing those actions. Any person who knows what is truly right will automatically do it, according to Socrates. While he correlated knowledge with virtue, he similarly equated virtue with joy. The truly wise man will know what is right, do what is good, and therefore be happy.

亞裡斯多德(西元前 384年 — — 323 年) 假定一個倫理的系統，可稱為"self-realizationism"。在亞里斯多德的視圖中，當一個人根據他的性質的行為和意識到他的全部潛力，他會做善事，內容。在出生時孩子不是一個人，但潛在的人。要成為一個"真正"的人，必須實現兒童的內在潛力。由潛力的人，從而導致失敗的目標和著貧窮的生活造成的不幸和挫折。亞裡斯多德說，"自然不徒然。"因此，就必須根據其性質採取行動和發展其潛在的人才，是內容和完整的人。幸福被認為是最終的目標。所有其他事情，如公民生活或財富，就是只是達到目的的手段。自我實現，一個人的認識和發展的一個人的人才是性質的幸福的最可靠途徑。 Aristotle (384 BC – 323 BC) posited an ethical system that may be termed "self-realizationism." In Aristotle's view, when a person acts in accordance with his nature and realizes his full potential, he will do good and be content. At birth, a baby is not a person, but a potential person. To become a "real" person, the child's inherent potential must be realized. Unhappiness and frustration are caused by the unrealized potential of a person, leading to failed goals and a poor life. Aristotle said, "Nature does nothing in vain." Therefore, it is imperative for people to act in accordance with their nature and develop their latent talents in order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate goal. All other things, such as civic life or wealth, are merely means to the end. Self-realization, the awareness of one's nature and the development of one's talents, is the surest path to happiness.

亞裡斯多德稱人有三個性質：蔬菜（物理/代謝）、動物（情緒/食欲) 和理性 (心理/概念)。物理自然可以通過行使和護理，通過本能和欲望的放縱情感自然緩解和精神通過人類理性和開發的潛力。合理開發被認為是最重要的對哲學的自我意識和作為獨特的人類一樣重要。與看得見降級和不道德的極端，鼓勵節制。例如，勇氣是膽怯的在極端和魯莽之間的適度的美德。男人不應簡單地活，但活得與行為受適度的美德。這被認為是困難的作為美德是指做正確的事情，給適當的人，在適當的時間，適當情況下，以正確的方式，為正確的理由。 Aristotle asserted that man had three natures: vegetable (physical/metabolism), animal (emotional/appetite) and rational (mental/conceptual). Physical nature can be assuaged through exercise and care, emotional nature through indulgence of instinct and urges, and mental through human reason and developed potential. Rational development was considered the most important, as essential to philosophical self-awareness and as uniquely human. Moderation was encouraged, with the extremes seen as degraded and immoral. For example, courage is the moderate virtue between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness. Man should not simply live, but live well with conduct governed by moderate virtue. This is regarded as difficult, as virtue denotes doing the right thing, to the right person, at the right time, to the proper extent, in the correct fashion, for the right reason.[10]

斯多葛派哲學家Epictetus 假定最大的好處是知足和寧靜。和平的心靈或Apatheia，是最高的價值；自結束一個人的欲望和情感會導致精神安寧。"不可戰勝的意志"是這一理念的核心。個人的將應獨立和不受侵犯。允許他人打擾的心理平衡是在本質上獻出自己的奴隸。如果一個人是自由意志的憤怒你，你有不能控制自己的內部世界，因此沒有自由。從材料的附件的自由也是必要的。如果一件事情中斷，該人應不會被破壞，但意識到它是可以打破的東西。同樣地，如果有人死了，那些接近他們應該堅持其寧靜因為被愛的人是血與肉往死亡。斯多葛學派哲學說接受不能更改，自認對存在和持久的理性的方式的東西。不恐懼死亡。人們做不"失去"他們的生活，但改為"返回"，為他們正在返回神 (最初給了什麼人是作為一個人）。]The Stoic philosopher Epictetus posited that the greatest good was contentment and serenity. Peace of mind, or Apatheia, was of the highest value; self-mastery over one's desires and emotions leads to spiritual peace. The "unconquerable will" is central to this philosophy. The individual's will should be independent and inviolate. Allowing a person to disturb the mental equilibrium is in essence offering yourself in slavery. If a person is free to anger you at will, you have no control over your internal world, and therefore no freedom. Freedom from material attachments is also necessary. If a thing breaks, the person should not be upset, but realize it was a thing that could break. Similarly, if someone should die, those close to them should hold to their serenity because the loved one was made of flesh and blood destined to death. Stoic philosophy says to accept things that cannot be changed, resigning oneself to existence and enduring in a rational fashion. Death is not feared. People do not "lose" their life, but instead "return", for they are returning to God (who initially gave what the person is as a person).

泰說生活中的困難問題不應避免的但而是擁抱。正如體育鍛煉是精神的身體的健康要求，它們是精神的所需、健康的精神訓練。他還說的性行為和性欲望是以避免將其用作的完整性和人類心靈的平衡的最大威脅。禁欲是非常可取的。泰表示剩餘的禁欲面對的誘惑是的勝利的男人也可以自豪。 Epictetus said difficult problems in life should not be avoided, but rather embraced. They are spiritual exercises needed for the health of the spirit, just as physical exercise is required for the health of the body. He also stated that sex and sexual desire are to be avoided as the greatest threat to the integrity and equilibrium of a man's mind. Abstinence is highly desirable. Epictetus said remaining abstinent in the face of temptation was a victory for which a man could be proud.

享樂主義倫理是美德倫理學的快樂主義表單。伊壁鳩魯"提出那種快感的持續的論據，正確理解，將配合的美德"。他拒絕了Cyrenaics，相信一些樂趣和贖罪券有損于人類的極端主義。Epicureans指出不分青紅皂白地放縱有時造成的消極後果。因此失控，拒絕一些經驗和一些不愉快的經歷忍受目前以確保更好的生活在未來。伊壁鳩魯的兒孫之或大的好處，是謹慎、克制和謹慎通過行使。過度放縱可以是破壞性的愉悅，甚至會導致的疼痛。 Epicurean ethics is a hedonist form of virtue ethics. Epicurus "presented a sustained argument that pleasure, correctly understood, will coincide with virtue".He rejected the extremism of the Cyrenaics, believing some pleasures and indulgences to be detrimental to human beings. Epicureans observed that indiscriminate indulgence sometimes resulted in negative consequences. Some experiences were therefore rejected out of hand, and some unpleasant experiences endured in the present to ensure a better life in the future. To Epicurus the summum bonum, or greatest good, was prudence, exercised through moderation and caution. Excessive indulgence can be destructive to pleasure and can even lead to pain.

狀態結果論，也稱為墨家成果論、是一種道德倫理學，它估值一個行為的道德價值建基於它提供多少基礎好處於一個狀態。斯坦福哲學百科全書描述墨家成果論，可以追溯到西元前 5 世紀，作為"一個明顯智慧模式基於普及的固有的好處作為人類福利架構"。 State consequentialism, also known as Mohist consequentialism,is an ethical theory that evaluates the moral worth of an action based on how much it contributes to the basic goods of a state.The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BC, as "a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare."與功利主義不同，它認為愉快作為一個道德上的好，"基礎的好在墨家主義思維中是......次序，物質財富和人口增加"。墨子的時代，戰爭和饑荒是經常的現象，而人口增長被看作是構建和諧社會的道德必要條件。墨家成果論的"物質財富"指的是基本需要像住房和服裝，而墨家的"秩序"是指墨子反對戰爭的立場和暴力行為，他視為毫無意義的，威脅到社會的穩定。 Unlike utilitarianism, which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are ... order, material wealth, and increase in population".During Mozi's era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society. The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to basic needs like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability.斯坦福大學漢學家大衛的牧羊人尼維森，在劍橋歷史的中國古代，寫那道德貨物的墨學"相互關聯的：更多的基本財富，然後更多的繁殖；更多的人，然後更多的生產和財富...如果人們有很多，他們會好、孝順，那種，所以 unproblematically." 天志認為道德基於"促進，造福于所有天堂下和消除對所有下天堂的危害"。邊沁的意見，而不適用於循證狀態不是功利因為它不是享樂主義或個人主義。是對社會有益的成果的重要性勝過個人的快樂和痛苦的重要性。Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison, in the The Cambridge History of Ancient China, writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth ... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically."The Mohists believed that morality is based on "promoting the benefit of all under heaven and eliminating harm to all under heaven." In contrast to Bentham's views, state consequentialism is not utilitarian because it is not hedonistic or individualistic. The importance of outcomes that are good for the community outweigh the importance of individual pleasure and pain.

傳統上，規範倫理學 (也稱為道德理論) 是什麼讓操作正確和錯誤的研究。這些理論提供了一個可以在解決困難的道德決定上訴到最高道德原則。Traditionally, normative ethics (also known as moral theory) was the study of what makes actions right and wrong. These theories offered an overarching moral principle one could appeal to in resolving difficult moral decisions.

20 世紀之交的道德理論變得更加複雜和不再僅僅關注正確性和這樣也情有可原，但感興趣的許多不同種類的道德地位。在世紀的中間，期間規範倫理學的研究由於元倫理學在突出增長下降。這種注重元倫理學是部分造成的強烈的語言專注在分析哲學中由邏輯實證主義的大眾化.At the turn of the 20th century, moral theories became more complex and are no longer concerned solely with rightness and wrongness, but are interested in many different kinds of moral status. During the middle of the century, the study of normative ethics declined as meta-ethics grew in prominence. This focus on meta-ethics was in part caused by an intense linguistic focus in analytic philosophy and by the popularity of logical positivism.

在 1971約翰 · 羅爾斯出版A 司法理論，在其追求的道德論據值得注意和避免採取元倫理學。這份出版物設置規範倫理學的新興趣的趨勢。In 1971 John Rawls published A Theory of Justice, noteworthy in its pursuit of moral arguments and eschewing of meta-ethics. This publication set the trend for renewed interest in normative ethics.

倫理道德或義務（從希臘 δέον、 deon、"義務，責任"；和-λογία， -共濟會) 是一種方法確定善良或從審查行為，或與規則的人做的法》努力履行的職責見義勇為的道德倫理。這是與不適用於循證，見義勇為基於的後果的一種行為，並不是行為本身。在義務，行為可考慮的權利即使行為，如果它遵循這樣的規則，"其中一個應該怎麼對待別人，他們一定會對他們"產生不良的後果，，和即使該法的人缺乏美德和壞打算在做法案》。[引證需要]根據義務，我們有責任，不會是本來就好作為行為（"真相"，例如)，這些東西的方式行事，或遵循客觀地強制性規則（如規則功利主義)。為 deontologists 的末端或我們的行動的後果並不重要的和自己，和我們的意圖不是在和自己的重要。Deontological ethics or deontology (from Greek δέον, deon, "obligation, duty"; and -λογία, -logia) is an approach to ethics that determines goodness or rightness from examining acts, or the rules and duties that the person doing the act strove to fulfill.This is in contrast to consequentialism, in which rightness is based on the consequences of an act, and not the act by itself. In deontology, an act may be considered right even if the act produces a bad consequence,if it follows the rule that "one should do unto others as they would have done unto them",and even if the person who does the act lacks virtue and had a bad intention in doing the act.[citation needed] According to deontology, we have a duty to act in a way that does those things that are inherently good as acts ("truth-telling" for example), or follow an objectively obligatory rule (as in rule utilitarianism). For deontologists, the ends or consequences of our actions are not important in and of themselves, and our intentions are not important in and of themselves.

康得的論點在道德上是正確的方式行事，一個必須採取行動的責任，從開始的最高利益必須是好的本身，和不分資歷的好。甚麼是 '好本身' 是本質上的好事，和 '不分資格的好' ，且當那件事從來沒有使得道德更糟糕。康得則聲稱通常被認為是好的如智力、毅力和高興，那些東西會失去本質上好或無分資格的好。樂趣，例如，似乎不是分資格好，因為當人們高興地看著別人的痛苦時，這似乎使道德情況更糟糕。他的結論是有真正好的只有一件事：Kant's argument that to act in the morally right way, one must act from duty, begins with an argument that the highest good must be both good in itself, and good without qualification. Something is 'good in itself' when it is intrinsically good, and 'good without qualification' when the addition of that thing never makes a situation ethically worse. Kant then argues that those things that are usually thought to be good, such as intelligence, perseverance and pleasure, fail to be either intrinsically good or good without qualification. Pleasure, for example, appears to not be good without qualification, because when people take pleasure in watching someone suffering, this seems to make the situation ethically worse. He concludes that there is only one thing that is truly good:

世界上沒有甚麼事 — — 的確沒甚麼事甚至超越世界 — — 我們不可能設想這可以稱為無分資格的好除了良好的意願。 Nothing in the world—indeed nothing even beyond the world—can possibly be conceived which could be called good without qualification except a good will.

康得倫理學的理論被視為道義論上幾個不同的原因。首先，康得認為在道德上是正確的方式行事，人必須為從義務 (deon) 行動。第二，康得認為它不是從行動的後果使他們對或錯，但執行的操作的人的動機 (馬克沁)。Immanuel Kant's theory of ethics is considered deontological for several different reasons.First, Kant argues that to act in the morally right way, people must act from duty (deon).Second, Kant argued that it was not the consequences of actions that make them right or wrong but the motives (maxime) of the person who carries out the action.

20 世紀後期期間作為對 G.E.M.Anscombe的現代道德哲學回應在很大程度上在通俗化了現代美德倫理學。Anscomge宣稱結果論者和道義倫理才是可行的普遍理論，如果兩個課題是自己建基在神律上。作為虔誠基督徒的她自己，Anscomge提議要麼他們是不相信神律的概念能帶動美德倫理學，並不需要的普遍法則作為他們自己對美德或邪惡的研究，並升高至"普適標準"，或那些他們希望成為功利主義或結果論者為他們的理論建基在宗教信條上。阿拉斯代爾麥金太爾，寫了關於美德的這本書，是美德的一個關鍵的參與者和現代美德倫理學的擁護者，雖然麥金太爾支持的文化規範基礎上的相對性美德課題，沒有客觀的標準。瑪莎努斯鮑姆，當代美德倫理學者反對麥金太爾相對主義，其他人當中，回應相對主義的反對意見，在她的工作形成一個反對課題。"非相對性的美德：亞里斯多德的構思." 為21 世紀完成行為原理糅合東方美德倫理學與西方道德倫理學，經過一些修改以適應 21 世紀，並且形成了當代道德倫理的一部分。 Modern virtue ethics was popularized during the late 20th Century in large part as a response to G.E.M. Anscombe's Modern Moral Philosophy. Anscombe argues that Consequentialist and Deontological ethics are only feasible as universal theories if the two schools ground themselves in divine law. As a deeply devoted Christian herself, Anscombe proposed that either those who do not give ethical credence to notions of divine law take up virtue ethics, which does not necessitate universal laws as agents themselves are investigated for virtue or vice and held up to "universal standards," or that those who wish to be utilitarian or consequentialist ground their theories in religious conviction. Alasdair MacIntyre, who wrote the book After Virtue, was a key contributor and proponent of modern virtue ethics, although MacIntyre supports a relativistic account of virtue based on cultural norms, not objective standards. Martha Nussbaum, a contemporary virtue ethicist, objects to MacIntyre's relativism, among that of others, and responds to relativist objections to form an objective account in her work "Non-Relative Virtues: An Aristotelian Approach." Complete Conduct Principles for the 21st Century blended the Eastern virtue ethics and the Western virtue ethics, with some modifications to suit the 21st Century, and formed a part of contemporary virtue ethics.

角色倫理學是基於家庭角色的道德理論。與美德倫理學不同，角色倫理不是個人主義的。道德從一個人與他們的社區的關係導出。儒家倫理是角色倫理學的一個例子。儒家角色中心圍繞孝道概念或“孝”，家庭成員的尊重的概念。按照羅傑 · 埃姆斯和亨利羅斯蒙特，"儒家規範性由生活家庭角色的最大效果定義."道德是一個人角色的實踐，例如父母或子女。儒家的角色不是理性，並且起源通過“信”或人類的情感。 Role ethics is an ethical theory based on family roles.Unlike virtue ethics, role ethics is not individualistic. Morality is derived from a person's relationship with their community.Confucian ethics is an example of role ethics.Confucian roles center around the concept of filial piety or xiao, a respect for family members. According to Roger Ames and Henry Rosemont, "Confucian normativity is defined by living one's family roles to maximum effect." Morality is determined through a person's fulfillment of a role, such as that of a parent or a child. Confucian roles are not rational, and originate through the xin, or human emotions.

作者: 古月語 時間: 2013-12-10 18:16

( 所有綠色字的資料均來自《自由的百科全書》)

『在《管子》牧民篇中有如下文字，應為「四維」的源起：

倉廩實，則知禮節。衣食足，則知榮辱。…四維張，則君令行。…守國之度，在飾四維。…四維不張，國乃滅亡。…國有四維，一維絕則傾，二維絕則危，三維絕則覆，四維絕則滅。傾可正也，危可安也，覆可起也，滅不可復錯也。何謂四維？一曰禮、二曰義、三曰廉、四曰恥。禮不逾節，義不自進，廉不蔽惡，恥不從枉。故不逾節，則上位安；不自進，則民無巧詐；不蔽惡，則行自全；不從枉，則邪事不生。

民國廿三年（1934年），時任國民政府軍事委員會委員長的蔣中正發動新生活運動，確立了「禮義廉恥」國之四維的地位，並重新解釋為「禮是規規矩矩的態度，義是正正當當的行為，廉是清清白白的辨別，恥是切切實實的覺悟」，在抗日戰爭時期再增修戰時的意義為「禮是嚴嚴整整的紀律，義是慷慷慨慨的犧牲，廉是實實在在的節約，恥是轟轟烈烈的奮鬥」。

宋代有了「八德」：孝、悌、忠、信、禮、義、廉、恥，這其中再次恢復了管仲提出的「四維」，去掉了「仁」，增加了「孝」與「悌」，將家族道德置於首位。隨着中國農業社會的發展，以家庭為本位的農業經濟日益穩定與發展，「家」對於農業經濟的發展，對於社會的祥和與穩定等功能日益突出，「家」乃國之基，「家和萬事興」，因此「齊家」，家庭與家族的凝聚也就日益重要。

面對西方強勢文化對於中國弱勢文化的衝擊，康有為、梁啟超、孫中山都認為，道德是中國之長項，只要推陳出新，就能夠建構中國的新道德。梁啟超等維新派，試圖以「孝、悌、忠、信」這「四德」為基礎，吸收西方近代道德精華，建構中國新道德。孫中山、蔡元培等提出了「忠、孝、仁、愛、信、義、和、平」新「八德」，這是「中體西用」、中西道德精華相融合的傑作。

新八德指忠孝、仁愛、信義及和平。孫中山在《三民主義之民族主義》第六講中，特別重視倡導，因共計有八字，故一般慣例簡稱為「八德」。』

一個滿口『禮義廉恥』的民族，近幾十年來竟被其它民族說是一個沒有信仰的民族，豈不怪哉？

在古月語看來，這也不奇怪。道德是神話，宗教也是神話。道德是指今世的，宗教是指來世的。一個今世的神話，一個來世的神話，期望導人向善。道德和宗教在人類的進化史上是同時起源的，人類甚麼時候開始懂得思維，道德和宗教就從甚麼時候開始出現。幾千年的歷史，大大小小流血戰爭沒有少過，道德阻止不了戰爭的發生，雖然道德沒有導致戰爭，但宗教卻是在人類歷史上引發了多次戰爭。

直到今天，人類社會上每天發生的事，都是道德所不允許的，但仍然發生了，這些事的發生實際上都是在踐踏道德。道德只有在具備智慧的時候才能被堅持。

人們都當道德是非常神聖，像上帝一樣神聖。《管子》是春秋戰國管仲的言論。他倒是說對了一件事：『倉廩實，則知禮節。衣食足，則知榮辱。』世界上沒有餓肚子的道德，只有吃飽了肚子，才有興趣談論道德。

歡迎光臨老校友 (http://www.boanson.orzweb.net/)

•	元倫理學，有關的理論意義和參考的道德命題和如何可能確定它們的真相的值（如果有）；Meta-ethics,about the theoretical meaning and reference of moral propositions and how their truth values (if any) may be determined;
•	規範倫理學；關於確定道德行動過程的實用方法Normative ethics,about the practical means of determining a moral course of action;
•	應用倫理學，有關道德如何結局可以實現在特定情況下；Applied ethics,about how moral outcomes can be achieved in specific situations;
•	描述性的道德規範，也稱為比較道德，是對有關道德；人們的信仰的研究Descriptive ethics, also known as comparative ethics, is the study of people's beliefs about morality;

•	沒有人想要邪惡。 No one desires evil.
•	沒有人犯錯或自願或知情的情況下犯錯。No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly.
•	美德 — — 所有美德 — — 就是知識。Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge.
•	美德對幸福是足夠的。Virtue is sufficient for happiness.